Zipf’s Law in Proteomics

After completion of the human genome sequencing and determination of its size, there is a great demand for similar information about the human proteome as proteins mediate almost all processes in a cell. To better understand the functionality of proteins, we need the information about their activity that is directly linked to their abundance. However, the situation is not simple here because of the complexity of proteins themselves. This complexity may arise from allelicvariations, alternative splicing of RNA transcripts, and post-translational modifications. All these cellular events create distinct protein molecules, proteoforms/protein species, that modulate a wide variety of biological processes. 

Apparently, by using standard technologies, it has been impossible so far to identify and calculate all protein species/ proteoforms present in a single human cell or in human plasma. The main problem is a huge dynamic range of concentrations, where the number of copies of different protein species in an object lies in the range from one to a billion molecules. One ofquantitative proteomic approaches, a proteomic technique that is mainlyperformed using 2DE or liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) is expected to offer an alternative solution this problem. Recently, using a shotgun approach, a large amount of information about protein abundance was produced. This information is still not enough as we still need to know how many specific molecules (protein species/ proteoforms) are present in a cell.

The Significance of Salivary Cytokines in Oral Leukoplakia

Early detection of oral premalignant lesions which might evolve into oral cancer by screening methods using suitable markers is critical. Saliva as a diagnostic fluid seems to be promising and has a number of advantages when compared to the blood-based testing. Histopathological diagnosis is still gold standard when diagnosing oral premalignant lesions, however, studies upon the role of salivary cytokines show promising results although more studies are needed on a larger sample. Cytokines have an important role in oral diseases and increased levels of interleukin 6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) have been reported in patients with cancer and premalignant lesions such as oral lichen planus and oral submucous fibrosis. 

Brailo et al. reported significantly increased levels of salivary IL-6 and TNF-alpha in patients with oral leukoplakia when compared to healthy controls. Furthermore, the levels of salivary IL-6 and TNF-alpha did not correlate with the size of leukoplakic lesions nor with its localization. Recently, Brailo et al.reported that salivary IL-1β and IL-6 were significantly higher in oral cancer patients than in patients with leukoplakia and control group.

The Role of GroE Chaperonins in Developing Biocatalysts for Biofuel and Chemical Production

Metabolic engineering and synthetic biology have been applied for the discovery and redesign of the potentials of microorganisms for numerous desired purposes. Both model hosting strains and microorganisms with highly-specific functionshave been engineered to improve feedstock utilization, target fuel and chemical production, as well as regulate cellular physiology. For instance, the baker’s yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which was first used by the human society thousands of years ago, has been genetically engineered to ferment otherwise non-fermentable carbon sources. Indeed, C5 sugars such as xylose cannot natively be catabolized by S. cerevisiae. 

However, the engineered S. cerevisiae strains are able to metabolize xylose efficiently and to produce ethanol. Theengineered microbes could simultatneously co-ferment carbon in the hydrolysateof lignocellulosic biomass such as hemicellulose- and cellulose-derived C5/C6 sugars and lignin-derived aromatics and produce fuels and value-added chemicals such as ethanol, n-butanol, sesquiterpenes, polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), and fatty acid ethyl esters. These advances are not limited to model hosts, such as S. cerevisiae and Escherichia coli, but have also been demonstrated in Clostridium acetobutylicum, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas putida, and Synechococcus elongatus.

Membranes with Favorable Chemical Materials for Pervaporation Process: A Review

Pervaporation (PV) process is a process for liquid mixture separation in a liquid phase. This process is able to separate different components from mixtures such as water/organic, organic/water and organic/organic mixtures. Pervaporation process works by placing a liquid mixture to be separated (feed) in contact with one side of a membrane. Across the membrane, the chemical potential gradient works as the driving force for the mass transport of the materials. Also, using vacuum pump or an inert purge (normally air or steam) on the permeate side can help to maintain of a suitable permeate vapor pressure. Usually the kept pressure is lower than the partial pressure of the feed liquid. Finally, the permeated product (permeate) can be removed from the other side with low pressure vapor. In terms of the application or nature of the experiment, the permeate vapor may be collected after condensation or released if desired.

Basically, hydrophilic and hydrophobic membranes apply to separate the aqueous solutions and organic solvents from water mixtures, respectively. PV separation technology has superiority to other separation technologies due to the separation mechanism which is based on the difference in sorption and diffusion properties of the feed substances as well as perm-selectivity of the membrane.

Metabolic Reprogramming in Resting and Activated Immune Cells

In steady stage, the cells in immune system are relatively quiescent with minimal activities and survival needs but they possess the ability to quickly response to pathogens or environmental challenges and constantly orchestrate their effector functions. Once pathogens are detected in system, the cells will switch to activated stage and be ready to fight with possible inflammation, infection, and/or any attacks from environment. The shaping from quiescent stage to activated stage requires energy and bio-precursor. Recent studies indicate that metabolism and immune cell functions are closely linked. The change in metabolism not only passively supports the activation status, but also crucially influences the differentiation of immune cells.

To understand how these fundamental processes influence each other may provide novel treatments for inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Defense against invading infectious pathogens and noninfectious foreign substance is mediated by innate immunity and adaptive immunity. Innate immune responses are early reaction of immune system and carried out by innate immune cells including macrophages, neutrophils, and natural killer cells.

Study the Relation between Fermentation Characteristics of Submerged Fluid and Improving the Lactic Acid Production by Fungi

Lactic acid (LA) is a colorless, odorless monocarboxylic acid naturally produced by many organisms. This weak acid has extensively used as an excipient in the food, cosmetics, pharmaceutical and chemical industries. The L-isomer is being preferred for food and pharmaceutical applications. Lactic acid can be produced by several microorganisms classified into bacteria, fungi, yeast, cyanobacteria, and algae. Among these microorganisms, lactic acid production using fungal fermentation showed high efficiency. Widely used method for the production of lactic acid is batch fermentation. Hydrodynamic conditions in the fermenter influence the morphology of the fungus and thus the rheology. 

High agitation rates, which are required for optimum mass transfer, lead to high shear stress. Consequently, mycelial networks are fragmented, increasing the amount of free filaments and hence the viscosity. Besides, high viscosity at low agitation rate causes insufficient mass transfer and oxygen limitation. Because of an existing dynamic relationship between fermentation conditions and fungal growth patterns, an improved impeller that was sufficiently flexible for submerged cultures would be an advantage in the design of an efficient enzyme production system.

Traditional Medicine Based Drug Development

Currently traditional medicine (TM) is used in primary health care systems in most countries parallel to conventional medicine. Therefore TM should be subjectedto rigorous research for their efficacy and safety for better health care. At present there is a high necessity for evidence based clinical drug development with changing of global economic scene. When developing novel drugs using TM candidates it is essential to consider novel standard parameters whenever possible. Quality control of TM is also prerequisite of standard clinical trials. 

When following evidence based clinical herbal product development cycle it is necessary to follow current standard quality controlling methods viz Good Laboratory Practice (GLP); Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP; Good Clinical Practice (GCP); Chemistry, Manufacturing and Controls (CMC) or PharmaceuticalQuality. World Health Organization (WHO), 2004 has published guidelines for safety issues in herbal product development. According to this categorization it is required to be addressed safety and toxicity before clinical usage of TM.